動詞時態
1 談談時態的從屬
時態的從屬(tense subordination),或時態的序列,或時態的一致,或時態的呼應,其實都是一個意思,即子句中所用的時態取決於主要子句中所用的時態。關於這個問題,一般語法書只講主要子句時態為過去一般時的一些用法,如:
(1)He told me he was unwell. (主要子句時態所表示的時間與子句時態相同)
(2)She said she had finished her work. (子句時態的動作先於主要子句時態)
(3)They said they would come. (子句時態的動作後於主要子句時態)
實際上,時態從屬的內容是很豐富的,遠遠不止這些。譬如:
(4)The right to rule is derived from those who gave it.
在這個句子中,主要子句的時態並不是過去式,而是現在式。子句中的過去一般時 gave 顯然從屬於主要子句中的 is derived。過去式從屬於現在式的情況並不罕見,再如:
(5)“Ensue”implies that what follows comes as a logical consequence of what preceded. (過去式 preceded 從屬於現在式 comes)
(6)In that country, a man is often accused of something which he did not do. (過去式 did not do 從屬於現在式 is accused)
(7)When the ball goes out of bounds, the referee decides which player touched last. (過去式touched 從屬於現在式 decides)
過去式也可以從屬於未來式,如:
(8) As soon as you get it, mail it to me here. I’ll be on the lookout, so Tom will never know it came.(過去式 came 從屬於未來式 will know。從「現在」角度看,過去式 came 在此表「將來」)
(9)In the years to come it will be a great thing for people to say that I died like a hero. (過去式 died從屬於 to say,但 to say 在此表未來,故 died 仍從屬於未來式)
(10)Be sure to let me know you arrived safely. (過去式 arrived 亦從屬於表未來的不定式)
上述三例中的過去式,從「現在」的角度來看,皆表「未來」,但也有表其他時間的情況,如:
(11)Well, I hope it will turn out all right. Only don’t say I didn’t warn you. (過去式 didn’t warn表「現在」)
(12)I’ll tell him you were here. (過去式 were 表「現在」或「過去」)
(13)If you see John, tell him I had to go out of town. (過去式 had to go 表「現在」或「未來」)
過去式當然也可以從屬於另一過去式,如:
(14)I didn’t know you were here. (過去式 were 從屬於過去式 didn’t know。注意 were在此表「現在」)
(15)He said his name was David. (過去式 was 從屬於過去式 said。注意 was在此表「經常」)
(16)I got a job because I was a woman. (過去式 was 從屬於過去式 got。was 在此只表當時得到工作的身份,與 got 同時)
關於過去式從屬於別的時態的情況,我們已經談了不少。現在讓我們簡略地看看其他一些時態的從屬情況。
過去完成式:
(17)He said he would come as soon as he had finished his work. (過去完成式 had finished從屬於過去未來式 would come,可能表「未來」)
過去進行式:
(18)Was it next Sunday they were coming? (過去進行式 were coming 從屬於過去式 was,表「將來」 )
現在式:
(19) Write and tell me what you decide. (現在式 decide 從屬於表未來的 write and tell,亦表「將來」。注意這裡的 decide 不可代之以 will decide,因為 will decide 表示其動作將發生在 write and tell 之後)
像這樣的現在式也不罕見,再如:
(20)You’ll soon know who is elected. (is elected 從屬於 will know)
(21)I’ll tell you how it goes tonight. (goes 從屬於 will tell)
(22) We’d better go and see Jane. She’ll be wondering why we don’t come. (don’t come 從屬於未來進行式 will be wondering)
(23)We’ll work for what we have, not borrow! (have 從屬於 will work)
現在完成式:
(24)When a man goes back to look at the house of his childhood, it has always shrunk. (現在完成式 has shrunk 在此從屬於現在式 goes)
(25)A man who has once acquired the art of intelligent reading and of lucid expression, has received no mean measure of education. (現在完成式 has acquired 與 has received 在此從屬於 a man,而 a man 所存在的狀態自然應由現在式所表示。所以,實質上句中的兩個現在完成式是從屬於現在式的)
現在進行式:
(26) I’ll tell him I’m using it. (現在進行式 am using 可能從屬於 will tell 表「未來」,與「現在」無關。注意 am using 不可代之以 will be using, 否則,其動作將發生於 will tell之後)
(27)On election night we’ll be telling you what’s happening in various places in this country. (現在進行式 is happening 從屬於未來進行式 will be telling,表 「將來」。它亦不可代之以未來進行式,理由同前)
(28)Sound is produced when the air which is being forced up from the lungs puts the vocal chords into vibration. (現在進行式 is being forced 從屬於現在式 puts)
未來式:
(29)Write and tell us what you’ll do. (未來式 will do 從屬於表未來的 write and tell,表「未來的未來」,即對 write and tell 而言的未來)
未來進行式:
(30)He will come to ask you if you’ll be wanting anything. (未來進行式 will be wanting 從屬於 will come,表示「將來的將來」,即對 will come to ask 而言的將來)
過去未來式:
(31)He said he would come tomorrow. (過去未來式 would come 從屬於過去式 said,表「將來」)
綜上可以看出: 許多時態都可以從屬於其他時態,而且一種時態還可以分別從屬於一種以上的時態。對學生來說,懂得了這一點無疑是會很有益處的。
然而,請注意下列各句的有關時態皆屬特殊用法,並不從屬於任何其他時態:
(1)Did you find the pen you lost? (過去式可表「過去的過去」)
(2)Maggie hoped nothing like that happened. (過去式可表「過去的未來」)
(3)I would rather you remained here. (虛擬語氣,此處不討論)
(4)The boy who was standing there ran away. (過去進行式與過去式一樣,亦可表「過去的過去」)
(5)I’ll tell him when he comes. (現在式可表「未來」)
(6)When you are passing my way, please drop in. (現在進行式可表「未來」)
2 關於一些時態的用法問題
有些讀者來信都問到一些時態方面的問題,現讓我們一併討論如下:
第一個問題是: 下面兩句中的間接子句為什麼用過去式而不用過去完成式?
(1)The teacher asked us how we liked the story.
(2)The doctor asked when the trouble began.
按照一般文法規則,這兩個句子中的間接子都應用過去完成式,liked應改為had liked, began 應改為 had begun。實際上,如果都改用過去完成式,也不為錯。那麼為什麼這兩個句子偏偏不用過去完成式而用過去式呢?
在不會被誤會的情況下,間接子句可用過去式代替過去完成式。那麼,它們之間有無區別呢? 有,其不同是: 過去完成式強調與主要子句動詞之間的先後關係,亦即強調過去完成式的動作發生在主要子句動詞之前;過去式則不強調上述先後關係,而僅強調間接子句敍述的事實。
第二個問題: 下面一些句子是否正確?
(3)I have seldom gone to the cinema since I bought a TV.
(4)He’s never gone to the movies.
(5)I have gone to work by bike since I have had one.
(6)Have you ever gone to New York?
(7)I have already gone there.
(8)I have gone there twice.
(9)No, I have never gone there.
句(3)與句(8)是合乎規範的英語,現在完成式 have gone 表重複動作。這種用法很普通,再如:
(10)My father has always gone to work by bike.
(11)Twice he has tried and twice he has failed.
(12)It’s rained every day this week.
句(4)、(6)、(7)、(9)中的 have gone 是美式英文,相當於 have been。我們認為學生應多用 have been,少用或不用 have gone。句(5)是錯誤的句子,可改為“I have been going to work by bike since I have had one.”等表重複性動作的句子,這樣才能與 since(自從)所引導的子句連用。而 have gone to work 則只表一次性動作,不能與 since 子句搭配。
第三個問題是: 下面一些句子能成立嗎?
(13)I have graduated from college since 1994.
(14)Did you know him before?
(15)Yes, I knew him long ago.
句(13)不能成立,因為 graduate 不是持續動詞,可改為“I graduated from college in 1994. ”; 句(14)正確無誤;句(15)也不能成立,因為 know 是靜態動詞,不可能與 long ago 連用,可改為“Yes, I got to know him long ago.”。
第四個問題: 在《英語時態》一書中有這樣一句話:
(16)We know each other twenty years.
請問它與
(17)We have known each other for twenty years有何區別?
例(16)用現在式,其重點在動詞上。例(17)用現在完成式,其重點在for twenty years上。
第五個問題: 下面兩句有什麼區別?
(18)They told me that you have changed your job.
(19)They tell me that you have changed your job.
例(18)用told,強調未說明的過去某一時刻。例(19)用 tell,強調現在的結果或事實。有時現在式 tell有「認為」的含義,如:
(20)The doctor tells me that I’ll soon be right again.
第六個問題: 請問下面兩個句子有何區別?
(21)I have been waiting for you for two hours.
(22)I have waited for you for two hours.
例(21)比較口語化,也可能帶有不耐煩的感情色彩。例(22)則說出一個事實,僅此而已。
第七個問題: 在下面兩句中應填 be 動詞的什麼時態形式?
(23)I ________ 25 next August.
(24)Today is the 19th of November. Tomorrow ________ the 20th.
句(23)可填 will be 或 am going to be。句(24)應填 will be,因為第二句是從第一句推算來的。
3 再談幾個時態用法的問題
又有一些讀者來信問到幾個時態用法的問題,其實也牽涉到一些情態問題,現讓我們一一討論如下:
第一個問題是: 英語裡要表達「我已經去過那裡兩次」時,只能說:
(1)I’ve been there twice.
而不可說
(2)I’ve gone there twice.
對嗎?
不對,這兩種說法都是正確的。現在完成式 have been 與 have gone 在這裡皆表重複性動作,但二者在語氣上並不完全相同。如談的是丟了東西,應該去找,例(1)的含義是: 我已去過兩次,你還要我去? 話中帶有感情色彩; 例(2)則無感情色彩,只是照事實說已去過兩次。注意例(1)與例(2)皆無時間副詞,因為其「至今」的含義是不言自明的。其後用上 up to now, today 或 this week 也可以,但如用過去時間 yesterday 或 last week,則須用過去式 went,如:
(3)I went there twice yesterday.
有的讀者可能對現在完成式可表重複性動作這一用法不甚熟悉,現再舉幾例供參考:
(4)My father has always gone to work by bike.
(5)Many a time as a boy have I climbed that hill.
(6)Six times he has tried and six times he has failed.
(7)He has done such things, but I don’t think he’ll ever do them again.
(8)I have often met him when I have been in London.
下面一例中的 has been 亦表重複性動作:
(9)— Mr. Smith has been on the phone for you, Dad.
— What time was that?
— About eight and then again at ten.
誤認為例(2)是錯誤句子可能是由於把它與錯誤句子“I have gone there”(我到過那裡)相混所致。我們在英語裡表達「去而複歸」這一含義時,一般的確應用 have been,不可用have gone (但也有例外)。
第二個問題是: 當有人敲門時,我主動要求去開門,應該說:
(10)I’m going to open the door.
不應該說
(11)I’ll open the door.
對嗎?
否,恰恰相反,在這種場合,我們應該用例(11),不應該用例(10)。為什麼呢? 讓我們先說為什麼應該用例(11)吧。例(11)中的I’ll 即 I will。 嚴格說來,will 在此是情態助動詞,有「意願」的含義,具體用來表示一種行將取得的結果。 I will 的這種用法在口語中是很普通的,再如:
(12)I’ve left my glasses upstairs. — I’ll fetch them.
(13)I’m going to town. — I’ll give you a lift.
(14)I have come to see Mr. Brown. — I will go and tell him.
(15)The phone rang and Jack stood up from the table. “I’ll get it,”he said.
現在再讓我們看看為什麼不應該用例(10)。我們知道,be going to 和助動詞 shall, will 一樣,也是一種表示將來的手段。它在當代英語裡用得很廣。但須指出,當它與作主詞用的人連用時,常有「意欲」、「打算」甚至「決定」的含義,而無主動向對方建議或要求做某事以取得結果的內涵。所以當我們用例(10)時,其意是「我打算去開門」或「我決定去開門」, 而不是「讓我去開門」,正如當我們說:
(16)I’m going to see Tom this afternoon.
或者:
(17)I’m going to town tomorrow.
此時只意味著「打算」或「決定」而不意味著一項主動的建議一樣。
第三個問題是: 請問下面四句話中各個時態的含義是什麼?
(18)This is the last time that I have dined at this restaurant.
(19)This is the last time that I’ll dine at this restaurant.
(20)This will be the last time that I have dined at this restaurant.
(21)This will be the last time that I’ll dine at this restaurant.
例(18)中的現在式 is 純表事實,無具體時間的概念。子句中的現在完成式 have dined 表示「已吃過飯」。全句不僅有決不再來此餐廳吃飯的意思,而且似乎有怒氣衝衝的感情色彩。例(19)中的現在式 is 與例(18)同,其子句中的 I’ll 即 I will, will 在此是情態助動詞,表意願或決意,無時間概念。說話人說此話時或已吃過飯或正在吃飯。不管怎樣,他在這家餐廳用餐則是最後一次了。例(20)與例(21)的子句中的時態的含義分別與例(18)、(19)同,其主要子句中的 will也是情態助動詞,表「料想」或「大概」,具有一種評論或議論的性質。但例(20)與例(21)也可能是指未來的事。再如:
(22)It will be the first time I’ve slept well.